Structural functionalism free essay sample

Structural functionalism, or simply functionalism, is a framework for building theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability. [1]This approach looks at society through a macro-level orientation, which is a broad focus on the social structures that shape society as a whole. [2] This approach looks at both social structureand social functions. Functionalism addresses society as a whole in terms of the function of its constituent elements; namely norms, customs, traditions, and institutions. A common analogy, popularized by Herbert Spencer, presents these parts of society as organs that work toward the proper functioning of the body as a whole. [3] In the most basic terms, it simply emphasizes the effort to impute, as rigorously as possible, to each feature, custom, or practice, its effect on the functioning of a supposedly stable, cohesive system. For Talcott Parsons, structural-functionalism came to describe a particular stage in the methodological development of social science, rather than a specific school of thought. We will write a custom essay sample on Structural functionalism or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page [4][5] The structural functionalism approach is amacrosociological analysis, with a broad focus on social structures that shape society as a whole. [6] Structural Functionalism Theory Structural functionalists believe that society leans towards equilibrium and social order. They see society like a human body, in which important organs to keep the society/body healthy and well[4]. Social health means the same as social order, and is guaranteed when nearly everyone accepts the general moral values of their society. Hence structural functionalists believe the aim of key institutions, such as education, is to socialise children and teenagers. Socialisation is the process by which the new generation learns the knowledge, attitudes and values that they will need as productive citizens. Although this aim is stated in the formal curriculum[5], it is mainly achieved through the hidden curriculum[6], a subtler, but nonetheless powerful, indoctrination of the norms and values of the wider society. Students learn these values because their behaviour at school is regulated [Durkheim in [3]] until they gradually internalise and accept them. Education must, however perform another function. As various jobs become vacant, they must be filled with the appropriate people. Therefore the other purpose of education is to sort and rank individuals for placement in the labour market [Munro, 1997]. Those with high achievement will be trained for the most important jobs and in reward, be given the highest incomes. Those who achieve the least, will be given the least demanding jobs, and hence the least income. According to Sennet and Cobb however, â€Å"to believe that ability alone decides who is rewarded is to be deceived†. [3] Meighan agrees, stating that large numbers of capable students from working class backgrounds fail to achieve satisfactory standards in school and therefore fail to obtain the status they deserve[7]. Jacob believes this is because the middle class cultural experiences that are provided at school may be contrary to the experiences working-class children receive at home [8]. In other words, working class children are not adequately prepared to cope at school. They are therefore â€Å"cooled out†[9] from school with the least qualifications, hence they get the least desirable jobs, and so remain working class. Sargent confirms this cycle, arguing that schooling supports continuity, which in turn supports social order. [3] Talcott Parsons believed that this process, whereby some students were identified and labelled educational failures, â€Å"was a necessary activity which one part of the social system, education, performed for the whole†[7]. Yet the structural functionalist perspective maintains that this social order, this continuity, is what most people desire[4]. The weakness of this perspective thus becomes evident. Why would the working class wish to stay working class? Such an inconsistency demonstrates that another perspective may be useful. Conflict theories are perspectives in social science that emphasize the social, political, or material inequality of a social group, that critique the broad socio-political system, or that otherwise detract from structural functionalism and ideological conservativism. Conflict theories draw attention to power differentials, such as class conflict, and generally contrast historically dominant ideologies. It is therefore a macro level analysis of society. Karl Marx is the father of the social conflict theory, which is a component of the 4 paradigms of sociology. For example Salomon, the leading sociologist. [citation needed] Certain conflict theories set out to highlight the ideological aspects inherent in traditional thought. Whilst many of these perspectives hold parallels, conflict theory does not refer to a unified school of thought, and should not be confused with, for instance, peace and conflict studies, or any other specific theory of social conflict. Conflict theory emphasizes the role of coercion and power in producing social order. This perspective is derived from the works of Karl Marx, who saw society as fragmented into groups that compete for social and economic resources. Social order is maintained by domination, with power in the hands of those with the greatest political, economic, and social resources. When consensus exists, it is attributable to people being united around common interests, often in opposition to other groups. According to conflict theory, inequality exists because those in control of a disproportionate share of society’s resources actively defend their advantages. The masses are not bound to society by their shared values, but by coercion at the hands of those in power. This perspective emphasizes social control, not consensus and conformity. Groups and individuals advance their own interests, struggling over control of societal resources. Those with the most resources exercise power over others with inequality and power struggles resulting. There is great attention paid to class, race, and gender in this perspective because they are seen as the grounds of the most pertinent and enduring struggles in society. Whereas most other sociological theories focus on the positive aspects of society, conflict perspective focuses on the negative, conflicted, and ever-changing nature of society. Unlike functionalists who defend the status quo, avoid social change, and believe people cooperate to effect social order, conflict theorists challenge the status quo, encourage social change (even when this means social revolution), and believe rich and powerful people force social order on the poor and the weak. Conflict theorists, for example, may interpret an â€Å"elite† board of regents raising tuition to pay for esoteric new programs that raise the prestige of a local college as self-serving rather than as beneficial for students. Whereas American sociologists in the 1940s and 1950s generally ignored the conflict perspective in favor of the functionalist, the tumultuous 1960s saw American sociologists gain considerable interest in conflict theory. They also expanded Marxs idea that the key conflict in society was strictly economic. Today, conflict theorists find social conflict between any groups in which the potential for inequality exists: racial, gender, religious, political, economic, and so on. Conflict theorists note that unequal groups usually have conflicting values and agendas, causing them to compete against one another. This constant competition between groups forms the basis for the ever-changing nature of society. Critics of the conflict perspective point to its overly negative view of society. The theory ultimately attributes humanitarian efforts, altruism, democracy, civil rights, and other positive aspects of society to capitalistic designs to control the masses, not to inherent interests in preserving society and social order. Social exchange theory is a social psychological and sociological perspective that explains social change and stability as a process of negotiated exchanges between parties. Social exchange theory posits that all human relationships are formed by the use of a subjective cost-benefit analysis and the comparison of alternatives. The theory has roots in economics, psychology and sociology. Social exchange theory features many of the main assumptions found in rational choice theoryand structuralism. Social exchange theory is based on a central premise: that the exchange of social and material resources is a fundamental form of human interaction. With roots in earlier theories developed in cultural anthropology, neoclassical economics, and psychology, the school of thought on social exchange developed at the UW focused on how interaction patterns are shaped by power relationships between individuals, and the resulting efforts to achieve balance in exchange relations. For example, in the first of a series of experiments dealing with social power and equity in exchange networks, the researchers studied factors and constraints that affected the use of power in a simulation of negotiated trade agreements. The simulation involved 112 male and female participants in a specially developed computerized laboratory and communication network. Each of eight subjects was connected to three others as bargaining partners, forming two separate four-person networks. Subjects sought to increase their profits by entering into trade agreements for resource units. Subjects could pursue either formal or informal negotiating procedures before a transaction was completed. The experimental design allowed the researchers to study power, equity, and the creation of commitment during these bargaining processes. Symbolic Interaction, refers to the patterns of communication, interpretation and adjustment between individuals. Both the verbal and nonverbal responses that a listener then delivers are similarly constructed in expectation of how the original speaker will react. The ongoing process is like the game of charades; only it is a full-fledged conversation. [1]Essentially, the theory can be viewed as a framework for understanding how individuals interact with each other and within society through the meanings of symbol. Symbolic Interactionism Theory Adapted from Scott Plunkett’s Course Pack Overview  · Symbolic interaction theory describes the family as a unit of interacting personalities.  · This theory focuses attention on the way that people interact through symbols: o words, gestures, rules, and roles.  · The symbolic interaction perspective is based on how humans develop a complex set of symbols to give meaning to the world (LaRossa Reitzes, 1993).  · Meaning evolves from their interactions in their environment and with people.  · These interactions are subjectively interpreted through existing symbols.  · Understanding these symbols is important in understanding human behavior.  · Interactions with larger societal processes influence the individual, and vice-versa.  · It is through interaction that humans develop a concept of larger social structures and also of self concept.  · Society affects behavior through constraints by societal norms and values.  · Self concept also affects behavior.  · Symbolic interactionism’s unique contributions to family studies are 1. families are social groups and 2. that individuals develop both a concept of self and their identities through social interaction.  · Symbolic interactionism is the way we learn to interpret and give meaning to the world though our interactions with others. Major Contributors (LaRossa Reitzes, 1993)  · George Herbert Mead (1934) often cited as the main contributor to symbolic interactionism  · Never published his theory  · Blumer, his student published it after his death o Meaning evolves from gestures (an action which produces a response in another) o Language is a set of shared meaning o Taking the role of the generalized other defined as the ability to extend interpersonal meanings to an entire group  · Herbert Blumer (1969) Mead’s Student  · credited with the term â€Å"symbolic interactionism. † He also summarized the basic assumptions of symbolic interaction from Mead’s earlier work Major Assumptions about Self and Family (LaRossa Reitzes, 1993)  · Individuals are not born with a sense of self but develop self concepts through social interaction  · Self concept is developed through the process of interaction and communication with others  · Self concept is shaped by the reactions of significant others and by our perceptions of their reactions  · Self concept, once developed, provides an important motive for behavior.  · Self fulfilling prophecy is the tendency for our expectations, and/or other’s expectations of us to evoke expected responses  · Humans interact and develop roles in the family according to symbols used to describe the family.  · These roles are based on the symbolic meaning attached to each role.  · How family members react to a situation is determined by how they interpret the situation. So, it is important to understand the symbols the family uses to understand their interactions and behaviors.  · In a family, complicated sets of meanings are transmitted through symbols that permit each member to communicate with each other and share experiences (Peterson, 1986). Core Principles of Social Interaction Theory 1. Meaning  · Meaning itself is not inherent in objects  · Human beings act toward things on the basis of the meanings that they have assigned to them  · Meaning arises in the process of interaction between people. that is, it takes place in the context of relationships whether with family or community  · Meanings are handled in and modified through an interpretive process used by the person in dealing with things he or she encounters  · Once people define a situation as real, its very real in its consequences 2. Language  · As human beings we have the unique ability to name things  · As children interact with family, peers, and others, they learn language and, concurrently, they learn the social meanings attached to certain words o That is, language is the source of meaning  · Meaning arises out of social interactions with one another, and language is the vehicle  · In Mead’s view, social life and communication between people are possible only when we understand and can use a common language, (Wood, 1997) 3. Thought or â€Å"Minding†  · An ability distinctly different from animals in that we have the ability to think about things rather than simply reacting instinctually  · An inner conversation with oneself  · A reflective pause through which we modify our interpretation of symbols  · an ability to take the role of â€Å"The Other† Major Premises of Symbolic Interaction Theory 1. Human beings act toward things on the basis of the meaning they have  § These things do not have an inherent or unvarying meaning  § Rather, their meanings differ depending on how we define and respond to them  § how we define, or give meaning to the things we encounter will shape our actions toward them  § Therefore, if we wish to understand human behavior we must know how people define the things— objects, events, individuals, groups, structures—they encounter in their environment 2. The meaning attributed to those things arises out of social interaction with others  § We are not born knowing the meanings of things  § We don’t learn these meanings simply through individual experiences, but rather through the interactions with others 3. These meanings are modified through an interpretive process  § the meanings of the things we encounter, though formed by social interaction, are altered through our understandings  § An individual’s interpretation of the meaning will guide and determine action 7 Major Assumptions of Symbolic Interactionism Theory 1. People are unique creatures because of their ability to use symbols. 2. People become distinctively human through their interaction with others. 3. People are conscious and self-reflective beings who actively shape their own behavior. 4. People are purposful creatures who act in and toward situations. 5. Human society consists of people engaging in symbolic interaction. 6. The ‘social act’ should be the fundamental unit of social psychological analysis. 7. To understand people’s social acts, we need to use methods that enable us to discern the meanings they attribute to these acts. Major Concepts, Definitions and Terms  § Identities the self meanings in a role.  § Language – A system of symbolds shared with other memebers of society, used for the purposes of communication and representation  § Looking Glass Self the mental image that results from taking the role of the other. imaging how we look to another person.  § Meaning – the purpose or significance attributed to something. Meaning is determined by how we respond to and make use of it  § Mind – A process of mental activity consisiting of self, interaction, And reflection, based on socially acquired symbols. Does not refer to an inner psychic world separated from society.  · Naming or Labeling Name-calling can be devastating because it forces us to view ourselves. through a warped mirror. Name calling like stupid can lead to a self – fulfilling prophecy. If a person sees himself as stupid he is likely to act stupid.  · Roles refer to â€Å"collections of expectations that define regularized patterns of behavior within family life† (Peterson, 1986, p. 22).  · Roles within the family may include but not be limited to the following: nurturer, socializer, provider, and decision-maker.  · Role-taking is the ability to see oneself as an object, in other words, to be able to see how others perceive oneself.  · Role-taking allows the individual to monitor and coordinate personal behavior in order to facilitate interaction with others and also to anticipate the responses of other individuals.  · Role conflict refers to the situation in which there are conflicting expectations about a specified role.  · Role making is the â€Å"process of improvising, exploring, and judging what is appropriate on the basis of the situation and the response of others at the moment† (Peterson, 1986, p. 23).  · The Self o According to Mead, self does not exist at birth but is developed through interaction with others o emerges from the social interaction of humans in which the individual takes on the role of the other and internalizes the attitudes and perceptions of others through those interactions o The interaction of an individual’s self-conception (I) and the generalized, perceived view that others have of the individual (Me) o The ongoing process of combining the â€Å"I† and the â€Å"ME. † â€Å"I† o An individual’s self-conception o The subjective self â€Å"Me† The â€Å"Generalized Other† o the generalized, perceived view that others have of the individual o The mental image of onseself that is based on expectations and responses from others o The image of the self seen in other peoples reactions  · Self-concept: the image we have of who and what we are (formed in childhood by how significant others treat/respond to us). The self-concept is not fixed and unchanging – if in childhood your teachers tell you you’re stupid, but later in life your teachers and friends begin to treat you as if you’re very bright, your self-concept is likely to change.  · Self-fulfilling prophecy- The tendency for our expectations to evoke responses in others that confirm what we originally anticipated. Each one of us affects how others view themselves. Our expectations evoke responses that confirm what we originally anticipated. Phenomenon: The way I choose to see the world creates the world I see.  · Significant symbol – A word or gesture that has a common meaning to an individual and others.  · Social Act – Behavior that in some way takes into account the â€Å"other† person, group or social organization, and is guided by what they do. It emerges through the process of communication and interaction.  · Symbol manipulation – The means through which we motivate others to action through the use of symbols Since people are symbolic creatures, they can interpret and talk about their inner experiences, such as their thoughts or desires, thus enhancing communnication and interactions with others Postmodernism is a general and wide-ranging term which is applied to many disciplines, including literature, art, economics, philosophy, architecture, fiction, and literary criticism. Postmodernism is largely a reaction to scientific or objective efforts to explain reality. There is no consensus among scholars on the precise definition. In essence, postmodernism is based on the position that reality is not mirrored in human understanding of it, but is rather constructed as the mind tries to understand its own personal reality. Postmodernism is therefore skeptical of explanations that claim to be valid for all groups, cultures, traditions, or races, and instead focuses on the relative truths of each person (i. e. postmodernism = relativism). In the postmodern understanding, interpretation is everything; reality only comes into being through our interpretations of what the world means to us individually. Postmodernism relies on concrete experience over abstract principles, arguing that the outcome of ones own experience will necessarily be fallible and relative, rather than certain or universal. Postmodernism postulates that many, if not all, apparent realities are only social constructs and are therefore subject to change. It claims that there is no absolute truth and that the way people perceive the world is subjective and emphasises the role of language, power relations, and motivations in the formation of ideas and beliefs. In particular it attacks the use of sharp binary classifications such as male versus female, straight versus gay, white versus black, and imperial versus colonial; it holds realities to be plural and relative, and to be dependent on who the interested parties are and the nature of these interests. Postmodernist approaches therefore often consider the ways in which social dynamics, such as power and hierarchy, affect human conceptualizations of the world to have important effects on the way knowledge is constructed and used. Postmodernist thought often emphasizes constructivism, idealism, pluralism, relativism, and scepticism in its approaches to knowledge and understanding. Postmodernism is generally considered to have been conceived during the early twentieth century. Postmodernism gained significant popularity in the 1950s and dominated literature and art by the 1960s. [1] Postmodernism has influenced many disciplines, includingreligion, literary criticism, sociology, ethics and morality, linguistics, architecture, history,politics, international relations, anthropology, visual arts, and music. Postmodern Theory – A Broad and Ambiguous View of Reality Postmodern theory is a broad and somewhat ambiguous belief system tied to the philosophical and cultural reaction to the convictions of Modernism (sometimes equated with Humanism). Postmodernism is the philosophical proposal that reality is ultimately inaccessible by human investigation, that knowledge is a social construction, that truth-claims are political power plays, and that the meaning of words is to be determined by readers not authors. In brief, Postmodern theory sees reality as what individuals or social groups make it to be. Feminist theory is the extension of feminism into theoretical or philosophical discourse. It aims to understand the nature of gender inequality. It examines womens social roles, experience, and feminist politics in a variety of fields, such as anthropology and sociology, communication,psychoanalysis, economics, literary, education, and philosophy. [1] While generally providing a critique of social relations, much of feminist theory also focuses on analyzing gender inequality and the promotion of womens rights, interests, and issues. Feminist researchers embrace two key tenets: (1) their research should focus on the condition of women in society, and (2) their research must be grounded in the assumption, that women generally experience subordination. Thus, feminist research rejects Webers value-free orientation in favour of being overtly political-doing research in pursuit of gender equality. [2] Themes explored in feminism include discrimination, objectification(especially sexual objectification), oppression, patriarchy,[3][4][5] stereotyping, art history[6] andcontemporary art,[7][8] and aesthetics. [9][10] Feminist theory is one of the major contemporary sociological theories, which analyzes the status of women and men in society with the purpose of using that knowledge to better womens lives. Feminist theorists have also started to question the differences between women, including how race, class, ethnicity, and age intersect with gender. Feminist theory is most concerned with giving a voice to women and highlighting the various ways women have contributed to society. There are four main types of feminist theory that attempt to explain the societal differences between men and women: Gender Differences: The gender difference perspective examines how womens location in, and experience of, social situations differ from mens. For example, cultural feminists look to the different values associated with womanhood and femininity as a reason why men and women experience the social world differently. Other feminist theorists believe that the different roles assigned to women and men within institutions better explain gender difference, including the sexual division of labor in the household. Existential and phenomenological feminists focus on how women have been marginalized and defined as the â€Å"other† in patriarchal societies. Women are thus seen as objects and are denied the opportunity for self-realization. Gender Inequality: Gender-inequality theories recognize that womens location in, and experience of, social situations are not only different but also unequal to mens. Liberal feminists argue that women have the same capacity as men for moral reasoning and agency, but that patriarchy, particularly the sexist patterning of the division of labor, has historically denied women the opportunity to express and practice this